Animal fats and plant oils - costs and considerations

TODO ITEMS:

• saturated/unsaturated fats
• cholesterol molecule vs health cholesterol
• LDL/HDL lipoproteins
• triglycerides
• solubility
• energy metabolism
• uses of unsaturated fats in the human body beyond energy storage/transfer
• poly-unsaturated fats
• flash-point
• poly-unsaturated fats as redox sinks
• free radicals
• health/nutritional needs
• essential nutrients
• gut microbiome
• PUFA marketing

What is this article about

Cooking oils and fats are modestly refined animal fats or plant/seed oils that are used in commercial and domestic cooking. You’re probably familiar with two classic examples: extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) and butter. But did you know that there are several cost-competitive alternatives that may be safer and/or healthier to use in regular cooking? Read on to find out more…

So what are the key considerations when choosing a plant oil or animal fat for culinary applications? Whoa, whoa, whoa there, tiger. First we need some more context for the key questions, such as folk-wisdom about saturated fats. Then we’ll touch on some basic chemistry to discuss the health impacts and uses of poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Lastly I’ll describe some rankings we can use to address the considerations about plant oils and animal fats in cooking and health.

What do we already know

As many of us are aware, the classic choice in cooking is “butter vs extra-virgin olive oil”. Our preferences revolve around choosing a animal fat that cooks well (like butter, ghee, or lard) vs using exclusively plant oils (e.g. EVOO, avocado, canola) for cooking. And, this choice is not simple. There are multiple competing finanical interests at play, as well as regulatory, health considerations, and actual incomplete evidence regarding the health and economic impacts of the choice of a cooking fat.

We do know that in general, diets rich in saturated fats can lead to the development or increased risk of several disease categories including heart disease, stroke, thromboembolisms, and more. The damage from these can be irreversible and as such risk should be mitigated from eating diets low in processed foods, red meats, and more. Most folks have heard of such rules from our health and food regulators, and medical groups such as the American Heart Association.

So what we know? Is that low-fat and especially low saturated fat diets may play a part in reducing risk of these diseases.

But… [warning]: skeptic flavor follows…

The plant oil industry has taken some market share away from animal fats to increase revenue, and the category of fats known as “saturated fat” has turned into everyone’s favorite scapegoat, due to some real concerns about this category from the American Heart Association. That’s not a bad thing, and it’s good for American Soy, it’s good for other plant oils, and sustainability.

But, there is absolutely a reason to continue to use animal fats (maybe not butter per-se) beyond the fact they taste so good. Many health magazines have become unofficial press for the plant/seed oil industries, both domestic and abroad. Doctors in their columns often tout inconclusive benefits of certain poly-unsaturated fats (often abbreviated as PUFAs). And to add to the confusion, some poly-unsaturated fats (some omega-3 and some omega-6 PUFAs) are essential nutrients for human health. Conversely? Some of the hype around omega-3 and omega-6 fats omits that many of these can be synthesized within the human body or its microbiome, or otherwise are quite abundant in our diet. So hype around omega-3 and omega-6 PUFAs? It depends.

Via ChatGPT and its count of the number of documented poly-unsaturated fatty acids, there are 7 common poly-unsaturated fats, 7 uncommon, 15-25 available PUFAs, and close to 50 total PUFAs.

Can you imagine if you had to memorize which of the 50 you need vs the ones you don’t? Of course not! Are all fats equal? Of course not! Are all unsaturated fats equal? You do the math. As before, some PUFAs can even be essential micronutrients (we cannot synthesize them and they must be obtained through diet).

There’s a devil in the details here. Not all plant oils are healthy. Not all fats are healthy. And the manufacturers, regulators, and health professional certainly have their work cut out for them, and certain categories (PUFAs, omega-6 which are PUFAs, etc.) contain both healthy and unhealthy fats. Finally, there is the issue of oxidative stability of saturated fat and conversely the oxidative sensitivitity of unsaturated fats.

So… where were we again? Oh yeah: “what do we know”

Aren’t plant oils better?

Well… yes and no. They have exactly one advantage, generally speaking; plant oils are lower in saturated fat. Yes, that saturated fat, the type that clogs things inside your body.

Thank you for reading. That’s it, that’s the whole story… roll credits…

Strictly speaking, it’s a really good rule of thumb to reduce saturated fats in our diet. But, cooking with animal fats can turn out to be healthy for one incredibly technical other reason: avoiding oxidative byproducts, sometimes known as radical oxygen species or free radicals.

Wait… what?

So first, let me restate the rule of thumb the American Heart Association uses; saturated fats are mostly bad. Diets rich in saturated fat can lead to an increased risk of acute episodes that lead to heart disease as well as the more progressive clogging of certain blood-vessels, the condition referred to as atherosclerosis.

But cooking exclusively with plant/seed oils can have negative health effects too. Cooking exclusively with plant/seed oils can introduce “free radicals” or “radical oxidative species (ROS)”. Don’t believe me? Let’s dive into the chemistry later.

Challenging the rule of thumb

Many Americans can benefit from diets with low saturated fat content. Most doctors and nutritionists recommend adjustments to diet by doing the following:

• intermittent fasting
• takeout/dine out < 7 month
• caloric restriction, favoring calories earlier in the day and not at night
• substitution of red meat with poultry, fish, beans, or vegetables
• preference of fresh herbs and ground spices over sauces
• use of fresh or canned vegetables to increase fiber and slow nutrient absorption

This is fairly standard par for the course for anyone concerened with watching their weight, their blood sugar, and/or their heart health. So, naturally one wonders, what are the nutritionists and chefs doing so well when it comes to food preparation, and more and more Americans are not?

Article contents

In this article I present a nuanced story concerning the 3 major categories of fats:

• Saturated fats
• Poly-unsaturated fats
• Mono-unsaturated fats

And additionally, the 2 minor categories of possible health-related unsaturated fats (not necessarily always for the better, nor even uniformly good or bad within a single category)

• omega-6 poly-unsaturated fatty acids
• omega-3 poly-unsaturated fatty acids

Additionally, the core concept of oxidative stress is introduced with respect to high-temperature cooking with plant/seed oils.

And finally, the concepts of solubility of triglycerides and the poorly understood LDL/HDL cholesterol “lipo-protein” fat/protein complexes will be briefly introduced.

So, in summary: the core concepts of free-radical mediated organ stress, driven by high-temperature cooking with plant/seed oils instead of thermally and oxidatively stable animal fats (butter, lard, tallow) is introduced to suggest to the reader that you should consider alternatives to your preferred cooking fat/oil, and occassionally vary it, especially when cooking for longer durations and/or at high temperatures. And, the juxtaposition between saturated and poly-unsaturated fats through a lens of oxidation/reduction (redox) chemistry is provided to contextualize the choices at play in the final component of the article: a comprehensive table containing prices and saturate/unsaturated fat content of cooking oils/fats.

Let’s begin

Article goal

In this short blog entry, I would like the reader to leave with at least 6 considerations in mind regarding cooking fats/oils and their role in human health and metabolism.

1. Animal fats and plant/seed oils can be healthy to cook with in small amounts, especially when incorporating fresh low-fat meats, poultry, and lots of vegetables. Key concepts:
   • saturated/unsaturated fat content
   • poly-unsaturated fats (PUFA)
   • health cholesterol (LDL/HDL) vs molecular cholesterol
   • LDL/HDL lipoprotein cholesterol
   • PUFA marketing
2. Some plant/seed oils are often marketed as very healthy, but some have oxidation byproducts that you consume in steady amounts over time, putting pressure on your immune system, antioxidants, and other damage repair systems throughout your cells and body. Key concepts:
   • flash-point
   • oxidation/reduction during cooking
   • saturated/unsaturated fat content
   • poly-unsaturated fats (PUFA)
   • poly-unsaturated fats and redox chemistry
   • free radicals
   • PUFA marketing
3. Some omega fatty-acids are thought to be important in roles beyond brain and heart health (which are oversold in non-primary literature), including immune support, endo/exo-cytosis (uptake or clearance by detox organs such as kidney/liver and intestines), cancer signaling, brain health, mood disorders, mental health, and more. Although there aren’t any good rules of thumb when optimizing diets for fat health in this way, consider the presence/absence of certain categories of fatty lipid chains that neither the human body nor its microbiota may synthesize. Key concepts:
   • saturated/unsaturated fat content
   • oxidation-reduction during cooking
   • poly-unsaturated fats (PUFA)
   • PUFA marketing
4. Note that cooking fats are not the only fatty component of our food. A holistic view of healthy fats must consider the lipids/fats from the protein source and whether or not the human body or oral/gut microbiota can synthesize the desired fatty lipid chain through the diet. Key concepts:
   • saturated/unsaturated fat content
   • poly-unsaturated fats (PUFA)
   • health/nutritional needs
5. Recall¹ that certain omega fatty acids are essential nutrients, meaning they must be obtained through our diet. Recall also that certain other lipids, such as monounsaturated fats, or certain polyunsaturated fats can be synthesized. Some of these (particularly certain poly-unsaturated fatty acids or PUFAs) may represent unnecessary oxidation targets during cooking, and can introduce free-radicals to the human body over time, which may strain organs and even cause cancer. Key concepts:
   • saturated/unsaturated fat content
   • poly-unsaturated fats (PUFA)
   • gut microbiome
   • essential nutrients
   • uses of unsaturated fats beyond energy
6. I’d also like the reader to have a better understanding the difference between molecular cholesterol (a small molecule) that is part of the more common health term “cholesterol”, which often refers to a ratio of low-density lipoprotein (LDL ‘cholesterol’) to high-density lipoprotein (HDL ‘cholesterol’) and the way humans transport and utilize fats (which do not dissolve well in blood), and how the VLDL/LDL/HDL components of fats dissolved in blood differ from “serum triglycerides”, which are free-floating and poorly soluble fats. These components should improve the readers understanding of the way fats/lipids play a role in atherosclerosis/heart disease, stroke, lipid-sensitive pancreatitis, MASH, and more. Key concepts:
   • saturated/unsaturated fat content
   • energy metabolism
   • health cholesterol (LDL/HDL) vs molecular cholesterol
   • LDL/HDL lipoprotein cholesterol
   • triglycerides
   • solubility

Fats and energy metabolism

Let’s discuss some biochem to understand the role of unsaturated and saturated fats in “healthy” cooking. I start with some basics of why fats are different from sugars. More importantly, why are these molecules different, how are they similar, and why does so much of nutritional science revolve around fats and so-called carbohydrates, the category which sugar belongs.

Introduction to energy metabolism

When animals and other organisms consume energy rich molecules, such as sugar, they are consumed for two reasons. The first of which is referred to loosely as “energy needs”. When animals eat and breathe, these actions combine throughout the body to “oxidize” sugar, or to break it down into almost nothing. When sugar is consumed for energy, it combines with oxygen to form water and carbon-dioxide. These inorganic byproducts result when the bonds of sugar are “oxidized”, or broken down, for the energy stored within the sugar (glucose/dextrose and fructose, commonly) molecule.

The other primary need for sugar, is to provide building blocks for other molecules that living things require. Conveniently, the pathway for the complete breakdown of sugar into energy alone, and the pathway for breaking sugar down, just enough, for the small building blocks happen to be overlap. For the avid reader, I’d refer them to a Wikipedia article on so-called “Central carbon metabolism”.

So, for the purposes of breaking down foods into small building blocks or for the complete oxidation of all energy-containing bonds of those foods, we have a branch of metabolism referred to as “catabolism”. The opposite of breaking foods down for food or energy is called “anabolism” (as in “anabolic steroid”) and is the branch of metabolism responsible for building larger molecules, structures, and the capacities for biological growth. In a certain way, catabolism is equally responsible for the capacities for growth because it provides the building blocks for anabolism. These two branches of metabolism are complementary.

Fat: because nature does not “waste”

Much as our economy is based on “waste not, want not” principles, the cellular/biological economy of metabolism is about resource management, efficiency, and salvage. For the sake of brevity, sugar that cells do not want to burn are first digested into smaller building blocks (pyruvate and then acetyl-CoA; see glycolysis) and then these are chained together to form a very stubborn molecule: fat. Another term for fat is “lipid” and you will see this word used interchangeably for the rest of this article.

And indeed, fat is stubborn. You see, each sugar has energy stored in chemical bonds, and some segments of the sugar molecule are very energy rich. The other parts of sugar are partially burnt off and the energy-rich parts are retained, and chained together, to form a very important molecule for living things: fat.

Essentially, sugar is enjoyed when things are good. Sugar is absolutely an essential part of a living organism’s diet. And, when things are going so well that energy can be spared, parts of sugar can be “saved” as a fat molecule. This fat forms cellular membranes, can be digested for energy, and used as components of other oily molecules and compartments. But for now? Let’s focus on the fact that fat is an energy-rich storage molecule.

Now to us, fat usually means the part of our belly that gets in the way of our pants fitting properly, or the component of the diet that plays a role in risk for heart disease. But we should think of it as just a stubbornly efficient battery. It’s energy that is stored so well, it’s like having a battery charged to 120%, and after a day of rigorous use, our battery has barely dipped below 74%.

That’s fat for you; it’s so rich and delicious, you’ll never get rid of it, willingly!

What does “saturated” and “unsaturated” mean?

Well, stricly speaking, a saturated fat is one that has no more room to store energy. It’s a chain that was assembled so well, and energy was conserved so efficiently, that there are no more bonds to “reduce” with negatively charged electrons, storing said energy. As a result, saturated fats are somewhat more “energy rich” than their unsaturated fat partners, but that’s sort of secondary to how many calories we consume, and it’s not really so much about “how much energy is in a fat molecule”. So strictly speaking saturated fat technically has more energy than unsaturated fat… but that’s not why it’s bad for you.

So what’s the more nuanced view of unsaturated fats? Well, it starts with how they’re degraded. Some animals have enzymes that break down a fat from the middle of the fatty-acid chain. But most of the time? It happens from one end of the molecule.

Which end? Well… that’s a little bit of a long story too… and I’d rather focus on dispelling the ideas about why saturated fats are “worse” than unsaturated fatty acids, because that’s marketing kung-fu, it’s lobbying-fu, and it’s a misnomer in our vernacular about the “saturation” of energy, even though the intuition we get from the name is partially correct, there’s a lot of preconceived notions we have about “saturated” is equivalent to “too much energy”. Not at all! We’ll get there in a moment.

Okay, so the other thing you might remember about where “saturated” fats come from in the diet, is from animals. Absolutely correct, well… Anyways, animal fats are often rich in saturated fats. And that’s cool. But plant and seed oils can be just as rich, if not more so, in those same saturated fatty acids. So, the first incorrect idea is that saturated-fat rich diets tend to imply a diet high in butter or red meat. We can thank the American Heart Association for the healthy idea, but having too much saturated fat can result from an unbalanced vegan diet. So what gives?

Well, good things take time, and we’re gonna take as many shortcuts as we can afford to get to the more important suggestions:

• a) saturated fats cook differently
• b) poly-unsaturated fats (PUFAs) spoil differently

PUFAs have health implications, not health certainties

There is a lot of conflicting information as well as genuinely good questions about what types of fats we should have just enough of, and what types we can have too much of in our diet. The AHA believes it is always good to minimize saturated fat. And because such a huge organization has decided this rule for us, it’s reasonable to agree with. That being said, one thing the American Heart Association doesnt talk a lot about, or nearly as much as the American Cancer Society, is the concept of human beings consuming large amounts of free-radicals from cooking.

That’s where poly-unsaturated fats come in; and a bit of organic chemistry.

What are unsaturated fats?

Mono-unsaturated fat with 10 aliphatic carbons and a carboxylic "head" group.

A comparison of a saturated fat (top), a poly-unsaturated fatty acid (middle) and a trans-fatty acid

Fig 1.a) A mono-unsaturated fatty acid chain, with a single unsaturated bond and characteristic “kink” in the fatty acid backbone.

Fig 1.b) A comparison of 3 different types of fatty acids. On the top, is a fully “saturated” fatty acid, known as myristate. In the middle, a poly-unsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) consisting of exactly 2 unsaturated bonds. Finally, another health-risk related fatty acid type, known as the trans fatty acid.

Un-saturated fatty acids have two types:

• mono-unsaturated fats
• poly-unsaturated fats (PUFA)

The former have exactly one alkene bond along the fat molecule, and are thus considered “unsaturated” with electrons. An example is shown above in figure 1.a. The second have two or more alkene (double) bonds along the backbone of the fatty acid. Often, doctors, nutritionists, and even food-industry professionals will discuss the three types of fatty acids in Fig 1.b.

Health questions about fatty acids

Saturated fatty acids

First we have the often beguiled saturated fats. These are very oily and may contribute to the development of progressive heart disease and other disorders, such as atherosclerotic plaques. They are often described synonymously with a related type of molecule: triglycerides. Though not the same, the abundance of both in the diet and subsequently the blood may indicate a diet or individual at risk for the development of heart disease. These are not the same molecule; we’ll come back to that later.

Mono-unsaturated fatty acids

Not much is specifically discussed in common media about mono-unsaturated fats. However, the characteristic “kink” or bend in the fatty acid skeleton plays a structural role in why unsaturated fats are different to the human body, even with just a difference of a few electrons. Fascinating! The most important difference to the human body, with respect to health, between fully, energetically saturated fat, and the first-degree difference, just one bond, the mono-unsaturated fat, has almost nothing to do with how much energy is stored, and whether the fat is “saturated” with hydrogen. Instead, it has to do with a structural difference that influences a) the oxidation tendency and b) the way the fat modulates the “stickiness” and solvation properties in different more complex compounds like triglycerides.

Poly-unsaturated fatty acids

Here is where, if you may, there may be some misinformation and marketing at play in the literature, amongst the fairly accurate rule of thumb from the American Heart Association on saturated fats. Now, again, this rule of thumb about minimizing the amount of saturated fat consumed in the diet is 100% a good rule.

However, the American Heart Association’s page on Saturated Fats is really anemic. The take-home from their page excludes an in-depth discussion of what fats are, what organic cholesterol is vs “good/bad” cholesterol, in the health sense of the term, and finally, why triglycerides (incidental soluble 3-fat chains) and circulating free fat are completely different from the way the liver manages to generate and circulate fats through the body inside of HDL/LDL particles (the good/bad cholesterol).

To be honest? The issues with the Heart.org page don’t end there. There is the issue of oxidation during cooking on the development of general organ damage, including cancer. There is no discussion on how cooking fats are one component of a low-fat diet, or why high-fat diets rich in fish-oils seem to be an exception to the “low-fat” rule of thumb.

And worst of all (not specific to heart.org), there is the excessive marketing around very loose ideas about two of the sub-types of poly-unsaturated fatty acids: omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. Some single fats from within these groups and other sub-types happen to be essential nutrients; they can’t be synthesized by the human body and therefore must be consumed via the diet. One of these is eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) from within the omega-6 fatty acid category. This molecule is often lauded by cardiologists and nutritionists, and is an essential (cannot be synthesized) fatty acid. However, a keen eye might note that this doesn’t mean that all omega-6 fatty acids are essential. In fact, omega-6 fatty acids are so plentiful in the human diet, that even though we can synthesize them (FIXME; Lehninger notes in blue book need name of arachidonate precursor?), we often do not need to because of our dietary surplus.

Before we take a deeper look at the issue of oxidation and the prevalence of unsaturated fatty oils in just cooking fats/oils, let’s take a brief look at why removing some or all animal fats from your diet might not be the best choice for your health.

3 reasons why cutting out animal fats might not be healthy:

1. Animal fats are lower in unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can oxidize during cooking at medium to high temperatures and lead to people ingesting free-radicals. These free-radicals can stress or damage organs and result in cancer. Animal fats, in contrast, have little of these and may result in less free-radicals consumed in the diet, in appropriate amounts of course.
2. Some plant/seed oils can be more expensive, some less so. Some have higher amounts of saturated fats than butter or tallow, some have lower amounts of saturated fats. Plant/seed oils aren’t necessarily more or less healthy than butter, and sometimes they can just be more expensive.
3. Animal fats are higher in saturated fats. Saturated fats are less likely to generate free-radicals due to some basic redox chemistry left to the reader. As a result, using some animal fat and cooking at lower temperatures for longer can result in less oxidation between the fat/oil and your food, and result in a cleaner pan! Oxidation products like char on a well-cooked burger, while tasty, may lead to unhealthy and more difficult cleaning experience with your home cooking!

Table of cooking oils and animal fats

Fat name	Total fat (g)	mono-unsaturated fat (g)	poly-unsaturated fat (g)	omega-3 PUFA (g)	omega-6 PUFA (g)	Saturated fat (g)	Cost (USD/qt)	Notes / properties
Avocado oil	14	9.88	1.89 (±)	0.134	1.75	1.62	16.39 - 39.76	High flash point, mild taste, pricey
Butter	11.5	3.32	0.43 (Ø)	0.04	0.31	7.17	3.75 - 8.80	High in saturated fat, standard for cooking
Canola / rapeseed	14	8.76	3.54 (±)	1.04	2.49	0.93	3.20 - 6.00	High in PUFA, high flash point
Cocoa butter	13.6	4.47	0.408 (±)	0.395	0	8.12		Pricey, scarce, low in PUFA
Coconut oil	11.2	0.86	0.23 (±)	0.003	0.23	11.2	13.71 - 15.31	Moderate thermal properties, low in PUFA, moderate taste bias
Corn oil	14	3.88	7.41 (±)	0.15	7.27	1.88	4.00	Affordable, high flash point, very high in PUFA
Cottonseed	14	2.49	7.27 (±)	0.03	7.21	3.63		Affordable, very high in PUFA, mild taste,
EVOO	14	9.58	1.33 (±)	0.09	1.24	2.17	15.76 - 37.68	Moderate price, fraudulent market, good flash point, moderate PUFA, high in polyphenols/antioxidants
Ghee	13.9	4.02	0.52 (±)	0.2	0.32	8.87	10.00	Moderate price, low in PUFA,
Goose	12.8	7.26	1.41 (Ø)	0.06	1.25	3.55		Scarce, moderate PUFA
Grapeseed	13.6	2.19	9.51 (±)	0.01	9.47	1.31	11.99	Affordable, low flash point, very high in PUFA
Lard	12.8	5.79	1.43 (±)	0.13	1.31	5.02		Affordable, high flash point, moderate PUFA
Macadamia	14	11	0.5 (Ø)	0	0	2		Scarce, pricey, low in PUFA
Margarine	8.37	2.7	3.71 (±)	0.38	3.32	1.69	6.00	Affordable, very high in PUFA
Palm kernel	13.6	1.55	0.22	0.22	0	11.1		Strong choice for commercial applications, affordable, very low in PUFA
Peanut	14	7.99	2.79 (±)	0.05	2.76	2.27	2.99	Affordable, moderate PUFA, high flash point
Red palm	14	6	1.5 (Ø)	0	0	6		moderate PUFA
Rice bran	13.6	5.34	4.76	0.22	4.54	2.68		mild taste, high in PUFA
Safflower	13.6	1.96	10.1	0	10.1	0.84		Affordable, very high in PUFA
Sesame	13.6	5.4	5.67 (±)	0.04	5.67	1.93		Pricey, nutty flavor, high in PUFA
Soybean	14	3.09	7.796	0.956	0	2.08		Affordable, very high in PUFA
Sunflower	14	2.65-7.79	3.95-8.94 (Ø)	0-0.122	9.2	1.22-1.77	23.98	Depending on formulation, fat composition, thermal, and nutritive properties can vary widely. Very high in PUFA
Tallow	12.8	5.35	0.51 (±)	0.08	0.4	6.37	10.40	Affordable, low in PUFA
Shortening	12.8	5.27	3.6 (±)	0.24	3.35	3.2	10.60	Affordable, high in PUFA

This table uses data that has been spot-checked and collated from https://nutritionadvance.com/types-of-cooking-fats-and-oils ², and is additionally cross-validated against the official government source known as the USDA Food Central Database (https://fdc.nal.usda.gov, ³)

Ø : - indicates USDA Food Central poly-unsaturated (PUFA) sums are more “off” (e > 0.03g), likely due to a sampling, instrumentation/methodology issue, or transcription issue between the primary source ³ and the secondary source ² from which numbers were collated.

± : - indicates the USDA Food Central PUFA sums are off by a trivial amount (arbitrarily selected as ≤ 0.03g)

[Caution] : Cooking fats with high poly-unsaturated fats are not necessarily healthier, and oxidize at lower temperatures. They may turn rancid when stored for long periods or cooked at higher temperatures. Poly-unsaturated fats, while not saturated fats, deserve special health considerations when used for everyday cooking. Relative fat content values are in grams and normalized to 1 tbsp (13.6-14g) and the proportions of fatty acid content scale linearly. Refined olive oil was omitted from comparison to Food Central Database data collated and corrected where possible from ‘nutritionadvance’. Sunflower MUFA/PUFA oil content properties can vary by formulation. Some descriptive statistics can be found by the following URL or searching for sunflower oils using Food Central search https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-search?type=SR%20Legacy&query=sunflower

1. Lehninger, Albert L. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry: David L. Nelson, Michael M. Cox. New York: Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic, 2004. ↩︎

2. Michael Joseph, Ms. (2025, September 25). 25 types of cooking fat: Nutrition, Fatty Acids, Pros & Cons. Nutrition Advance. https://nutritionadvance.com/types-of-cooking-fats-and-oils ↩︎ ↩︎²

3. Fooddata Central Frontpage. USDA FoodData Central. (n.d.). https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/ ↩︎ ↩︎²